Judge and Bono on Relationships of Core Self

The purpose of the research by Judge and Bono was to conduct a review of the literature which studies the correlation between self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, internal locus of control, and low neuroticism (emotional stability), on the one hand, and job performance and job satisfaction, on the other, and gather information in order to provide a quantitative evaluation of this correlation.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Judge and Bono on Relationships of Core Self-Evaluation Traits to Job Satisfaction and Performance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The study found that each of the four traits had a positive, nonzero relationship to both job performance and job satisfaction (Judge and Bono 81, 82). It is also interesting that the traits have a greater influence on job satisfaction than on job performance (Judge and Bono 83). The authors state that the estimated true score correlations of self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, internal locus of control, and low neuroticism to job performance were 0.26, 0.23, 0.22, and 0.19, respectively, whereas the correlations of these traits to job satisfaction equaled 0.26, 0.45, 0.32, and 0.24, respectively. One of the most interesting findings is that the self-esteem affects both job satisfaction and job performance virtually to an equal degree, whereas the other three traits affect job satisfaction more. It would appear that e.g. low neuroticism should have more influence on job performance that high self-esteem, for emotional stability seems to be more important to do one’s work properly, but we can see that it is slightly less influential in case of job satisfaction, and has even less effect on job performance. Works Cited Judge, Timothy A., and Joyce E. Bono. â€Å"Relationship of Core Self-Evaluations Traits – Self-Esteem, Generalized Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and Emotional Stability – With Job Satisfactio n and Job Performance: A Meta-Analysis.† Journal of Applied Psychology 86.1 (2001): 80-92. Print. This case study on Judge and Bono on Relationships of Core Self-Evaluation Traits to Job Satisfaction and Performance was written and submitted by user Paige Key to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

20 5-Paragraph Essay Topics Issue Relevant to Povert that You Must Discuss in an Essay

20 5-Paragraph Essay Topics Issue Relevant to Povert that You Must Discuss in an Essay If you are searching for topics on the culture of poverty for a 5 paragraph essay, look over the 20 topics supplied in the list below. These topics cover a diversified selection of ideas. They all tackle multiple aspects of the theory of the culture of poverty including influences that pour into it, and theories which have since stemmed from it. This list of varied topics is meant to support your endeavor, offering some guidance on subject matter appropriate for your next assignment. It is incumbent upon you to review the assignment details given to you by your teacher and from there, review the list of potential ideas below to find something which best suits your task. The Traits that Characterize the Culture of Poverty Marriage as a Route to Poverty Creation of Benefits among Impoverished Subcultures Legitimacy of Blaming Poor People for Poverty Factors Contributing to the Creation of Welfare Nation Impact of Poverty on Nations Worldwide Poverty in Rich Countries: The Case of America Social Learning Theories: The Use of Culture of Poverty Global Problems and Culture of Poverty Impact of Long Term Poverty: Understanding Culture of Poverty Concentrated Poverty: Cultural Influences Does Job Creation Reduce Poverty? Validity of the Culture of Poverty Theory Re-Evaluating Culture of Poverty for Modern Society The Evolution of the Debate on Poverty Influence of Kaaryn Gustafson on Culture of Poverty Influence of Mario Luis Small on Culture of Poverty Culture of Poverty Influence on Politics Culture of Poverty Influence on Welfare Reform Consequences of Culture of Poverty Sample 5-Paragraph Essay â€Å"The Traits That Characterize the Culture of Poverty† The theory of a culture of poverty is something which was created in 1959 when a book was published by an anthropologist named Oscar Lewis. This book was titled Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty. The culture of poverty theory is one which states that living in conditions where poverty high rates of poverty are observed in high amounts will lead to creation of a culture or even a subculture which has adapted to the conditions of poverty.   This culture has been characterized by the ever present feelings of being marginalized, feeling dependent, being helpless, and feeling powerless. Individuals who live inside of a culture of poverty have no real sense of history and therefore they lack knowledge needed to alleviate the conditions in which they live through collective action. Instead they focus only on their individual problems. When poverty is imposed on a population that structure can actually lead to the development of a culture of poverty. This result s in individuals becoming autonomous, and developing attitudes and behaviors which are passed down from one generation to the next through socialization. The ethnography in which this theory made its first appearance renders poor people as a legitimate subject transformed by poverty. The original ethnography argued that the burdens of poverty are systematic and when the burdens are imposed upon members of society they form a subculture. This culture is formed by children who are socialized into attitudes and behaviors which perpetuate poverty and create their own inability to escape the impoverished environment in which they live. This theory further acknowledges that all past factors which have created this condition of society including substandard education and housing as well as a lack of job opportunities, sufficient social services with persistent discrimination and racial segregation together no longer matter. This theory perpetuates the notion that the cause of poverty and present behavior and the attitude of the poor people themselves. This would imply that public assistance to those who are poor, in the form of direct assistance or welfare will not eliminate poverty because the poverty is inherent within the culture of the poor. By following the reasoning laid out by this anthropologist the blame for poverty is shifted from the economic and social conditions and placed upon the poor people themselves. A great deal of the evidence presented in the original publication in support of this theory suffers from fallacies in the methodology. Because of this, when publicly criticized during the 1970s the theory became less influential but did make a comeback in the early 2000. During this time it impacted welfare reform once again with particular influence on Assistance for Needy Families in 1997 and again in 2005. Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan used this theory in 1965 to support a publication about poor African Americans. This report stated that poor black people in America were stuck in a tangle of pathology and it was this pathology which caused the breakdown of the modern black family. It was argued that the traditional family among the African Americans during times of slavery was broken by slavery itself. It further stated that black males felt a sense of powerlessness during slavery which since that time had created a culture of dependency. This culture of dependency was argued to be the reason that traditional male headed households were declining among black families and the reason that black males were not succeeding as well in the social ladder. Overall the characteristics of the culture of poverty emphasize traits of maladaptive behaviors and attitudes from those who live in poverty. It is argued that people who live in poverty develop a subculture which adapts to the conditions, characterized by regular feelings of being marginalized, dependent, helpless and powerless. Furthermore those who live within a culture of poverty have no real sense of collective history and therefore cannot alleviate the condition based on collective action. Instead, these individuals focus on their own troubles and their own troubles alone. References: Owens, Patricia. The Family, the Culture of Poverty and Welfare Provision.  RAIN  63 (1984): 6. Web. Ravenhill, Megan.  The Culture of Homelessness. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008. Print. Redeaux, Monique. The Culture of Poverty Reloaded.  Monthly Review  63.3 (2011): 96. Web. Rodman, Hyman.  Lower-Class Families. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. Print. Tuason, Ma. Teresa. Culture Of Poverty: Lessons From Two Case Studies of Poverty in the Philippines; One Became Rich, the Other One Stayed Poor.  Online Readings in Psychology and Culture  8.1 (2002): n. pag. Web. Van Til, Sally Bould.  Work and the Culture of Poverty. San Francisco: R and E Research Associates, 1976. Print. Wasserman, Jason Adam, and Jeffrey M Clair.  At Home on the Street. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010. Print.

Measurement of human processes (Project Management) Assignment

Measurement of human processes (Project Management) - Assignment Example Therefore, the development of a good visual system is of tremendous benefit to the project manager. A paper system in binders is a poor way of keeping people informed. This drags the organization behind in progress tracking and reporting (Kerzer, 74). Poor scheduling or resource management (mismanagement) by the project manager often leads increasing your chances of project failure. This is because managing any project is managing a schedule, but a schedule is typically a collection of resources that are being managed on a schedule. There is poor scheduling on elicitation techniques, use cases, user screen design specifications, reports, business rules, functional, and the non-functional requirements (76). Weak requirements definitions which lead to planning inadequacy, this is brought about by the project manager failing to identify his or her target. One way of identifying project requirements is by describing how the end results look like in measurable terms. Requiring of a soft w are that is easy to use is an objective measure of our testing. Poor requirements lead to poor development and design. A software program ends up doing the wrong things for the users resulting in massive re-tests and rework. According to Kerzer (78) he asserts that inadequate planning, risks, resources, and assumptions by the project manager often leads to a failed project. ... This may be attributed to the fact that you may not be trained in the utilization of that software or technology. Ineffective quality controls which make you to deliver what the client does not want. The poor balances and check systems results in these ineffective quality controls. In addition, most of the projects have a system of correcting problems but do not have a system of corrective action Managing multiple projects at the same time or multi-tasking resources goes against, less is more, and focus is power. Multitasking introduces schedule risk and complexity which impacts negatively on all projects involved. Supply chain failures which emanates from contracted work. Managing of contractors is an inherent risk because they may not be having the level of skills required for the job. Contractors also have that tendency to multitask so as to stay busy thus introducing complexity and schedule risk. Scope creep or poor analysis of impacts has an effect on the schedule, budget, and r esources. It means there is an increase in the on what is delivered without a corresponding increase in resources to the project timeline. This can actually be alleviated by performing good impact analysis and clarification of real requirements. Another failure of project is attributed to lack of qualified resources and personnel. This makes you to question your resources thus giving the wrong task to the wrong person (Anderson, 1). Discussion 2 I have the following characteristics; visionary, decisive, a good motivator, technically competent, and support team members. Those that I need to work on are being a good motivator, encouraging new ideas, and standing up to top management when necessary.

E-Practice of Medicine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

E-Practice of Medicine - Essay Example The company prides itself on offering excellent prices for its goods and heavily advertises this feature of its business. Clearance items can be purchased for as much as 80% off of the suggested retail price. The company also offers a savings club for regular purchasers that allows them to realize substantial discounts. (drleonards.com) Customer service is offered via email, live chat, and a toll free phone number. Agents are available from 8 a.m. until 10 p.m. EST Monday through Friday, and 8 a.m. until 5 p.m. EST on Saturdays. (drleonards.com) Ensuring secure data transmission is a priority for the company. Dr. Leonard’s contracts with Verisign (www.verisign.com) to ensure that ordering information is protected from hackers and other information pirates. McAfee Security has evaluated the site and awarded it McAfee SecureClub status for the level of protection it offers for customers performing online transactions. (drleonards.com) According to drleonards.com the firm’s customer base is in the millions. Aside from the main web page and printed catalog, it also has a network of affiliated web sites that link to drleonards.com. Site owners earn an 8% commission on sales that result from visitors clicking on the link. Dr. Leonard’s is a member of the Better Business Bureau of New Jersey, according to www.bbb.org. It holds accredited status with the organization and enjoys an excellent record of satisfying its customers. Dr. Leonard’s customer base is primarily persons in their 40s and older. Their income levels range from below average to slightly above, with a small number in high income brackets. A large proportion are elderly and retired, and many live in rural areas with limited access to local shopping. They tend to be married, conservative in lifestyle and values, and enjoy purchasing items via mail order and online. Analysis of the company’s product line shows that its

International Labour Standards

International Labour Standards Module -International Perspectives on Industrial Relations QUESTION: Some commentators have argued thatthe adoption of labour standards would threaten the trade prospects of developing countries. Critically evaluate this claim and discuss the policyimplications. In this essay, it is explained that ILO after its foundation following World War One aimed at protecting the fundamental rights at work, creating and securing decent work opportunities for men and women, providing social protection to all the parties concerned and encourage social dialogue. To achieve its aim, ILO works very hard to achieve core labour standards through its member states by giving funds and encouraging them to implement core labour standards and by punishing and discouraging the member states who violate core labour standards. It also, through its campaigns tries to link World Trade Organization with the core labour standards to put extra pressure on the states which are not complying with the set standards. ILO also encourages the member states that they should ratify the convention as after their ratification it becomes the law of the government. ILO has been very active in creating many conventions and they have been trying very hard to encourage countries to have declaration which constitute better policy implications to promote core labour standards in developed and developing countries. It is also explained that how growth of trade is affecting core labour standards and its effect on the particular economy and job sector by giving empirical analysis of developed countries and developing countries. In the case of developed nations Japan and United States were thought of. While doing bilateral trade agreement each country should respect their domestic labour standards and each country while having trade with each other should have high labour standards. In the end, it is explained that developing countries should pay special attention to implement core labour standards and at the same time should take great care while implementing them according to their current domestic or local situation. International Labour Standards and Trade Prospects International labour organization was founded in 1919 after the First World War. Its main aim is to promote working rights, social protection, decent employment opportunities and to deal with work related issues via negotiations and dialogues. In the year 1946, the International Labour Organization became the first specialized agency of the UN. Today, it has 178 members in six continents. It is the only tripartite agency which brings together government, workers and employers to formulate and shape up the policy and programmes. There are four main objectives which ILO is determined to achieve and these are as follows:  § To encourage standards and fundamental principles and rights at work  § To provide vast opportunities for men and women to earn living by securing decent employment  § To provide social protection for all parties concerned  § Strengthen tripartism and social dialogue Source: http://www.ilo.org/global/About_the_ILO/langen/index.htm The ILO is the global body responsible for drawing up and overseeing international labour standards. In todays globalized economy, international labour standards are very important tool in ensuring the growth of the global economy which provides benefits to all. â€Å"The rules of the global economy should be aimed at improving the rights, livelihoods, security, and opportunities of people, families and communities around the world.† (World Commission on the Social Dimension of Globalization, 2004) International labour standards are made with a view to promote opportunities for women and men to obtain decent and productive work in an atmosphere of freedom, equity, security and dignity. The development of the labour standards occurred without international coordination before the First World War and these agreements only concerned with the migrant people from different countries, although they were actually made after the formation of International Labour Organization in 1919. ILO is working very hard to implement core labour standards throughout the world. Core labour standards are those standards which are so basic and universal and can be implemented in all member states irrespective of the economic development of member states. These core labour standards are those which are also described as ILOs four main objectives as mentioned earlier. To achieve these standards ILO held so many conventions since 2006. ILO conveyed 186 conventions and discussed various issues like women working after dark and holiday pay etc. Member states are not required to ratify all conventions but ILO emphasizes member states for ratification of the conventions. Because after the ratification, it becomes a law even for the government who approved of it and thats why they are reluctant to ratify the law although they agree in principle with the law. In order to achieve core labour standards ILO stresses on its publications and condemns those who violate these standards. It puts pressure on the countries which ratify the conventions but are not complying with the law. It has no official authority to punish the state which violates these core labour standards but a tripartite representative can make a complaint and ILO can only do investigation and report its findings. The failure on part of implementation of core labour standards universally led to a suggestion that Core labour standards should be linked with WTO so that it can be used as a tool to enforce core labour standards (Brown, 2001). According to the ILO Constitution (2006c), â€Å"the failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of labour is an obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve the conditions in their own countries.† ILO is having major problems in the implementation of core labour standards mostly in the developing countries as they are prone to labour rights abuses, with minimum wages, open to child labour exploitation and where the core labour standards are not entirely protected. ILO is working very hard to encourage the developing countries to follow the footprints of developed nations in implementing the core labour standards. Although improvement of core labour standards is essential for the growth or prosperity of a particular country but it is also counterproductive if these core labour standards are introduced in trade agreements as the countries who have comparative advantage in labour intensive goods would not be able to export their goods and therefore its growth and social development will slow down in turn. If a country has low labour standards and by applying trade sanctions it would be inefficient as there would be no trade labour linkage as there is violation of core labour stan dards for example, child labour and forced labour occurs in small, domestic or family firms who have nothing to do with the trade as they are not exporting anything and trade labour linkage is a social clause only limited to trade-impacted products (Robert C. Shelburne, Wage Differentials, Monopsony Labor Markets, and the Trade-Labor Debate, 19 Journal of Economic Integration 1 (March 2004), pp. 131-161.) On the contrary, the trade labour linkage could also be used indirectly when small firms which have nothing to do with the exports subcontracting with the exporting firms which indirectly contribute to the competitiveness of the exposed firms (Peter Morici and Evan Shulz, Labor Standards in the Global Trading System) (Washington, D. C.: Economic Strategy Institute, 2001). Violation of core labour standards can affect trade flows in two ways firstly, by decreasing wages competitiveness is reduced and secondly, child and forced labour will lead to an increase in unskilled labour but it can give developing countries comparative advantage in labour intensive goods and thus increase or boost exports. In 1947, Havana charter was laid down as a link between international trade and labour standards. The purpose of this charter is that all member states should recognize the importance of core labour standards related to their productivity and enhance labour standards within its territory. Due to failure of its ratification from the member states the International trade organization had not been created instead General agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) was used as a substitute (GATT Article XX (e)). When World trade organization was only two years old, Singapore ministerial declaration was adopted on 13 December, 1996 and due to absence of consensus again labour trade linkage was denied. Hence, ILO was the only body or organization to tackle labour standards. The difference between Havana Charter and Singapore declaration is that in Havana Charter they recognize that trade disputes are caused due to labour standards in different member states whereas in Singapore Declaration trade related labour standards should be adopted but it should be counterproductive as it prevents trade and distorts comparative advantage for labour intensive developing countries. After the Singapore declaration, ILO set up a world commission on the social dimension of globalization (the final report: A fair globalization Creating opportunities for all) (Geneva: ILO, February 2004). Trade theorists have always argued that growth of trade between developed and developing nations will lead to job losses of unskilled labour in developed countries whereas job gains of unskilled labour in developing countries but the problem is that the job gains of unskilled labour in developing countries is quite high as compared to job losses of unskilled workers in developed nations [Collins, (1998) Machin and Van Reenan, (1998) and Learner, (1998)]. Many countries while doing their bilateral trade, respect the core labour standards. In the U.S Trade Act of 2002, the 6th objective is â€Å"to promote respect for workers right and the right of the children consistent with core labour standards of the ILO.† While engaging in the bilateral trade agreements, every nation should respect the domestic labour standards and must possess high labour standards. In case of any disputes, there is specific institution which has the power to impose sanctions in case of serious flaws in relating to labour standards (International Economics Policy Briefs PB-5; Washington D. C.: Institute of International Economics, April 2001). In December 1998, Mercosur countries (Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay) adopted a social declaration about promotion and respect of ILO core labour standards. Similar provisions can be found in most of the new regional trade agreements. Developed countries also impose labour standards criteria within the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) and the World Trade Organization, Enabling Clause, which allows nonreciprocal preferences in favour of developing countries. The European Union also proposes special incentive arrangements for the protection of labour rights, which may be granted to countries whose national legislation, incorporates the rules adopted in the ILO conventions. In order to understand the trade impact of labour standards, empirical analysis of trade manufacturers between developed countries and developing countries will be used. The developed countries in this analysis are Japan and U.S and Six developing countries from Asia. The methodology consists of main items of export and import of each of the countries concerned and classified as export-oriented, import-competing, food, beverage and tobacco, petroleum and related and others and comparative analysis of changes in employment and wages in different categories of industries. Japan and United States are the nations which mainly export skill intensive manufacturers to the developing nations and import labour intensive producers from those nations. Employment in import-competing industries reduces due to growth in trade with the developing countries whereas employment will increase in export orientated industries. As import competing industries are more labour intensive than export-orientated industries therefore the employment of skilled worker will rise and so there wages in developed nations and demand for unskilled labour will fall as a result. Therefore, the share of import competing industries will decline in Japan and U.S whereas the export-orientated industries will either incr ease or remain at stagnant level. Developing countries are expected to export labour intensive manufacturers to developed countries and import skill intensive manufacturers to them. Growth of trade with developed countries should increase the labour intensive industries in developing countries and decrease the skill intensive industries in total manufacturing sector (International Labour Review, Vol.139 (2000), No.3). Therefore, the demand for unskilled labour will increase and the demand for skilled labour will fall thus reducing the wage difference between the skilled and unskilled labour will fall {World Bank (1997)}. Growth of Trade affects employment in the import-competing developed countries and in contrast it stimulates employment in all sectors of manufacturing industries in developing countries. This is because the growth of trade will give foreign exchange to developing countries which obviously they need for their prosperity or economic growth and their income elasticity of demand for import competing is high in developing countries whereas it is low in case of developed countries (Chenery and Strout, 1966). It is presumed that rich and developed countries are more towards international labour standards than developing countries. The violation of core labour standards in developing countries will result in economic distortion and hence lower the national income of developing countries. These violations can be in respect of child labour, gender, racial or other discriminations which in turn risk physical integrity and health (Sandra Polanski, Trade and Labour Standards, A Strategy For Developing Countries (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003), at ). If the developing countries want to invest in capital accumulation they need to raise their labour standards which in turn will eradicate child labour and other discriminations which can trigger growth of the economy (the pioneer work, Robert Lucas, On the mechanics of economic development, Journal of Monetary Economics 22 (1988), pp. 3-42). Many authors have argued that higher labour standards in developing countries will increas e the demand for unskilled labour as they are labour intensive and will increase the wages of formal employment, discourage foreign and domestic investment and it may become an obstacle for economic growth of a developing country (Singh. A and Zammit. A, The global labour standards controversy: Critical issues for developing countries) (Geneva: South Center, 2000). If the developing countries adopt higher labour standards for example, reduction of child labour then it might have a negative effect on the economy as some of developing countries people are living below the poverty line and if child labour is restricted then it might have a way to other social problems like starvation, prostitution, street labour etc. So, the developing countries must take great care while implementing policies as such sudden policies might have negative effect on the social life of people living in those countries so they must take into account the local or domestic condition into account. On the contr ary, the disappearance of child labour and compulsory education in developed countries like U.S and Britain have very significant effect on their economies as restriction on child labour would increase the employment opportunities for adults and with compulsory education they can specialize in some field or sector by which they can increase their income. So, labour standards can play an important role in promoting economic growth for example, with the improvement of labour standards in developing countries like Bangladeshi garments firms, Pakistani soccer ball manufacturing and West African cocoa production etc, all these industries are growing. In turn they are playing an important role in the growth of their economy respectively (Kimberly Elliott and Richard B. Freeman). Conclusion The absence of core labour standards in World Trade Organization official text other than Singapore Declaration has reinforced the ILO legitimacy. The ILO has given a new life to fundamental conventions which are now largely ratified by member states and became a law for the country who ratify them. It contributes to more efficient labour market and respect the comparative advantage of the developing countries. More cooperation between ILO and WTO is needed. Core labour standards are very helpful in increasing capital accumulation which in turn increase the economic growth of developing countries and decrease the distortions and make human capital accumulation easier. The developed countries should encourage developing countries in the form of incremental aid and other concessions in order to improve their labour standards and if fines or duties are imposed the money from fines and duties must be spent on the betterment of labour standards of a particular country. The developing countries are not in a position to benefit from globalization where trade is shifting from primary commodities to manufacturers. The population in developing countries is increasing at much higher rate than developed countries thus developing countries should give special attention towards restraining the inequality of growth between developed and developing countries and this can be achieved if they make their international policy towards the betterment of infrastructure development. The trade growth of manufacturers in developing countries has adverse effect on unskilled labour in developed countries. Skilled and unskilled labour in developing countries has increased their employment and wages due to growth of trade and in general growth of trade has positive and substantial effects. International labour Organization is playing an important part in strengthening labour standards in developing countries and argues that developed world which has high labour standards now had poor labour standards in the past and developing world can choose the same steps in making their standards high and ultimately boost up their economic growth .They should eradicate Child Labor, Forced labor, and all other discriminations. It might take some time as they have to act according to their domestic environment but slowly and surely they will reach at the point where they will have high labour standards thats why ILO proposed substantial relaxation labour standards for the developing world. References: * Clotilde GrangerJean-Marc Siroà «n.(2006), â€Å"Core Labor Standards in Trade Agreements: From Multilateralism to Bilateralism†.Journal of World Trade,40(5),813-836. Retrieved December 1, 2009 * GATT Article XX (e). * http://www.ilo.org/global * International Economics Policy Briefs PB-5 (Washington D. C.: Institute of International Economics, April 2001). * International Labour Review, Vol.139 (2000), No.3  · Joshua C. Hall Peter T. Leeson, â€Å" Good for the Goose, Bad for the Gander: International Labor Standards and Comparative Development† J Labor Res (2007) 28:658-676 * Peter Morici and Evan Shulz, â€Å"Labor Standards in the Global Trading System† (Washington, D. C.: Economic Strategy Institute, 2001) * Robert C. Shelburne, Wage Differentials, Monopsony Labor Markets, and the Trade-Labor Debate, 19 Journal of Economic Integration 1 {March 2004), pp. 131-161. * Sandra Polanski, â€Å"Trade and Labor Standards, A Strategy for Developing Countries† (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003), at www.ceip.org/pubs * Singh. A and Zammit. A, â€Å"The global labor standards controversy: Critical issues for developing countries† (Geneva: South Center, 2000) * The final report: A fair globalization Creating opportunities for all, (Geneva: ILO, February 2004).

Examining History :: essays research papers

It is imporatant to carefully examine history in order to learn from previous mistakes, and also to ensure that the same mistakes are not repeated. The Manhattan project is an excellent example. This program allowed the United States to unleash the power of the atom, thus, introducing a new and devastating element into warfare. Although they managed to come in first in the race with Germany, the U.S. bears the responsibility of having introduced the atomic bomb, and have the blood on their hands from the use of it. It is obvious that the U.S. reaped the benefits by introducing the bomb, because no one else had the chance to use it on them. However, it is imperative to realize that when they dropped the bomb they became hypocrates. They did not want it used on them, but were eager to use it on another country. Actually, the U.S. had trouble deciding who to use it on. However, when a target was selected, the results were devastating. There were 170,000 people killed in Hiroshima alone and in Nagasaki, estimates say, nearly 70,000 died. After the bomb was dropped, the resulting radiation killed nearly 70,000 people. The Manhattan Project and the use of the atomic bomb were unfortunate products of a scientific breakthrough and a frantic race; which resulted in a revolution in warfare. The Manhattan Project originated from the Army Corps of Engineers, this division was originally named the Manhattan District. The later name, The Manhattan Project, encompassed the district, the scientific, the governmental and the strategic aspects (4:9). In 1941 President Roosevelt and several American scientists began work on the project (1:1). The bomb was never reffered to as the "atomic bomb" it was referred to as "a new weapon of unusual destructive force" (13:74). The main hub of acivity for this project was in New Mexico, the program lasted from 1942 to 1946. The total cost was nearly 2 billion dollars (1:3). Another important aspect to this program was the secrecy invovlved. It was said that "loose lips sink ships" (13:37). According to Roosevelt the only people who knew about the program at it's conception were Vice President Wallace, the Speaker of the House, the Democratic Leader of the Senate Mr. Barkley, and the Chairman of the Appropriations Committee for the House and Senate (11:27). As time went on it was still kept very quiet, most cabinet members and even more congressmen did not know about it (1:3).

Determinants of Capital Structure in Pakistan Essay

Capital structure refers to the combination of asset financing from different available sources. Normally the companies have two choices, either to finance the assets from internal source that is termed as retained earnings or from external source that splits into debt and equity. A firm’s capital structure is than the composition of its liabilities. In reality, capital structure of firms may be highly complex and consist of number of sources. These sources start from the retained earnings and ends in hybrid securities. The source of funding a capital is also diversified into short term and long term financing. Modigliani-Miller theorem The thinking of capital structure was initiated by the Modigliani-Miller theorem, proposed by Franco Modigliani and Merton miller. They made two findings under perfect market conditions. Their first proposition was that the value of a firm is independent of its capital structure and the second proposition stated that the cost of equity for a leverage firm is equal to the cost of equity for an un-leveraged firm with addition of premium for financial risk. They extended their analysis by including the effect of taxes and risky debt. Under a classical tax system, the tax deductibility of interest makes debt financing valuable. It means the increase in proportion of debt in capital decreases the cost of capital. And eventually the optimal structure would have no equity at all. Later on it was revealed that the imperfections of real world must be the cause of capital structure relevance to firm value. The trade-off and pecking order theory try to address some of these imperfections, by relaxing the M&M assumptions. Trade-off theory Trade-off theory adds another variable called financial distress in the previous studies and explains that although there is an advantage of debt financing and that reaps from the tax benefit shield. But a time come when the high debt give birth to bankruptcy cost and when the optimal level of capital structure is exceeded than the marginal benefit from the tax shield become less attractive than the cost of financial distress occurred due to debt financing. Therefore there exist an optimal debt and equity combination and companies should follow this optimal level of debt and capital ratio. This ratio is similar within one industry but may be different for different industries. The missing point of this theory is that it doesn’t explain the difference in the optimal capital structure ratio of the same industry. Pecking order theory Pecking order theory tries to capture the costs of asymmetric information. That means the managers of a company has more and complete information about the company than investors. The theory states that company’s priorities their financing sources and prefer internal source of funding to external. The hierarchy of sources is such that whenever company needs new funds it tries to fulfill its requirement first from retained earnings than from debt and raise equity as last resort. The pecking order theory is famous by Myers & Majluf(1984) when they argues that equity is a less preferred means to raise capital because when managers issue new equity, investors believe that managers think that the firm is overvalued and managers are taking advantage of this over-valuation. As a result, investors will place a lower value to the new equity issuance. The capital structuring plays vital role in the long run financial decisions of the company. In this paper my focus is on debt financing decisions of the company. I have explored why the companies use this source and what are the factors that determine company’s capital structure decision. The capital structure was firstly discussed by Modigliani & Miller in 1958. Modigliani & Miller (1958), the theorem states that, in a perfect market, how a firm is financed is irrelevant to its value. Gay B.  Hatfield (1994), demonstrated that the firms which issues debt are moving toward the industry average from below, the market will react more positively than when the firm is moving away from the industrial average on the basis of this they classified firms leverage ratios as being above or below their industry average before announcing a new debt issue. They test whether this has an effect on market return for share holders and they have founded that the relationship between a firm’s debt level and that of its industry does appear to be of concern to the market. Laurence Booth(2001), finds whether capital structure decisions differ significantly between developing and developed countries or not? He collected data of 10 developing countries by the international finance corporation and use panel data technique for comparative analysis. They found that the variables that are relevant for explaining capital structures in the United States and European countries are also relevant in developing countries. Jorgensen & Tera(2003), stated that there are many, industrial, accounting, managerial and macroeconomic factors that affect the capital structure decisions. They used sample data of capital structure determinants of 700 companies for the Latin American economies for the period 1986-2000. The study concluded that firms are impacted by company fundamental and macroeconomic forces. Deesomsak, Paudya, & Pescetto(2004), explore about capital structure for the Asian pacific countries. The countries discussed in their study are Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Australia. The study explores that environmental and operational factors affect the decisions made for capital structure. The study also investigates that financial crisis of 1997 also affect the capital structure organizations. Shah & Hijazi(2004), investigate the performance of non financial firms for the Pakistan perspective. The observed variables for capital structure are debt ratio, size, growth, leverage and profitability. The results show that there is a positive relationship between size and leverage. The growth is negatively correlated to leverage and the study finds consistent relationship between profitability and leverage. Shah & Khan(2007), investigate the relationship between firm fundamental factors and leverage ratios for the period of 1994 to 2002. They used pool regression model to achieve their purpose. The findings show that earning volatility and depreciation variable are not correlated to leverage ratio. The agency theory is lead by growth factor and pecking order theory bear out by profitability variable. The trade off theory is lead by firm’s size. Daskalakisa & Psillaki(2008), investigate the small and medium firms of Greek and French industries for the period of 1998 to 2002. The similar factors of the firms are used in this study because the same capital structure is employed in these two countries. There is a negative relationship among asset structure, profitability and leverage. The study finds that growth of France industry is statistically significant compare to Greek industry market. The study argues that there are firm specific differences among the countries non country factors. Psillak & Daskalakis(2009) studied small and medium size firm’s performance. The capital structure determinants are size, growth, profitability and risk. The results show that small and medium entrepreneurs affect the performance in a same way. The study explore there is a positive relationship between size and leverage and a negative relationship among growth, profitability and risk factors. Dilek Teker(2009), investigate the fundamentals of the capital structure theories, they assumed determinants can be related to find out whether some priori assumed macroeconomic determinants can be related to leverage parameters of interest or not. For this purpose, they conducted an empirical research that covers 42 selected firms traded at the Istanbul Stock Exchange ISE-100 index. Following the developments in the contemporaneous estimation techniques that allow us to use time series and cross section data concurrently, the panel data methodology has been applied to the actual data to compute the leverage ratios for each firm within the time period 2000-2007. From this, they highlight the issue of what properties the leverage ratios have and to satisfy our interest about how can the macroeconomic determinants affect the leverage ratios under various groupings such as tangibility, size, growth opportunities, profitability and non debt tax shields. Our main results return on assets and tangibility of assets have a positive and statistically significant impact on the firm’s leverage ratio, while the ratio of total depreciation to total assets and profit margin on sales seem to have some negative and significant impacts on Firms’ leverage degree. Tugba Bas(2009), worked on determinants of capital structure of small and medium enterprises in emerging markets. They used pooled data for 25 countries obtained from World Bank enterprises survey and applied panel data OLS technique for analysis. They found that tangibility is inversely related with leverage hence opposite for small firms. Profitability follows the pecking order theory and is also negative related. Firm size and GDP growth has positive relation with leverage. Inflation has negative impact on the leverage but interest rates pose positive relationship. Shun-Yu Chen(2011), the purpose of this paper is, to present empirical evidence on the determinants of capital structure and firm value in a newly industrialized country. The firm characteristics are analyzed as determinants of capital structure according to different explanatory theories. The findings of this study suggest that firm size, profitability and asset structure can be considered explanatory variables of capital structure. The firm size, profitability and capital structure affect book value. So the determinants of market value are profitability and firm size. Furthermore the capital structure negatively affects market value in electronic firms, but does not affect market value in non-electronic ones.